International Journal of Innovative Approaches in Science Research
Abbreviation: IJIASR | ISSN (Online): 2602-4535 | DOI: 10.29329/ijiasr

Review article    |    Open Access
International Journal of Innovative Approaches in Science Research 2025, Vol. 9(2) 38-58

Phytomedicine in Southeast Asia: Harnessing Biodiversity for Sustainable Healthcare and Economic Growth

Musa Isah, Amina Muhammad, Farida Abubakar Tomo, Regina Jabaka Doro, Baha'uddeen Salisu & Peter Abiodun Olugbemi

pp. 38 - 58   |  DOI: https://doi.org/10.29329/ijiasr.2025.1330.2

Publish Date: June 30, 2025  |   Single/Total View: 0/0   |   Single/Total Download: 0/0


Abstract

The future of phytomedicine in Southeast Asia (SEA) appears promising due to the region’s diverse tropical flora, which includes nearly 50,000 known medicinal plants. This review examines current trends in medicinal plant research, the incorporation of phytomedicine into modern healthcare systems, existing challenges, and potential solutions. Recent research has highlighted the therapeutic potential of several notable SEA medicinal plants. Moreover, some countries in the SEA, such as Thailand and Vietnam, have effectively integrated traditional medicine into their modern healthcare systems. By 2026, the herbal medicine market is expected to reach USD 104.78 billion, with Southeast Asia (SEA) playing a significant role in this global economic expansion. However, conservation challenges, methodological complexities, and strict regulatory requirements hinder the practices of phytomedicine. This review emphasizes the importance of international collaboration, technological innovation, and the implementation of sustainable policies in overcoming these challenges. Therefore, phytomedicine has the potential to enhance the global economy, drive healthcare innovation, and promote sustainability by addressing key challenges and harnessing the region’s abundant biodiversity

Keywords: Phytomedicine, SEA, Medicinal Plants, Biodiversity, Traditional Medicine


How to Cite this Article?

APA 7th edition
Isah, M., Muhammad, A., Tomo, F.A., Doro, R.J., Salisu, B., & Olugbemi, P.A. (2025). Phytomedicine in Southeast Asia: Harnessing Biodiversity for Sustainable Healthcare and Economic Growth. International Journal of Innovative Approaches in Science Research, 9(2), 38-58. https://doi.org/10.29329/ijiasr.2025.1330.2

Harvard
Isah, M., Muhammad, A., Tomo, F., Doro, R., Salisu, B. and Olugbemi, P. (2025). Phytomedicine in Southeast Asia: Harnessing Biodiversity for Sustainable Healthcare and Economic Growth. International Journal of Innovative Approaches in Science Research, 9(2), pp. 38-58.

Chicago 16th edition
Isah, Musa, Amina Muhammad, Farida Abubakar Tomo, Regina Jabaka Doro, Baha'uddeen Salisu and Peter Abiodun Olugbemi (2025). "Phytomedicine in Southeast Asia: Harnessing Biodiversity for Sustainable Healthcare and Economic Growth". International Journal of Innovative Approaches in Science Research 9 (2):38-58. https://doi.org/10.29329/ijiasr.2025.1330.2

References
  1. Abdul Rahman, M. N., Nafiah, M. A., Wan Salleh, W. M. N. H., Tan, S. P., Hashim, N. M., & Zamakshshari, N. H. (2022). Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, and Cytotoxic Activities of the Hexane and Dichloromethane extracts of Malaysian Mitragyna spesiosa Korth. Leaves. Malaysian Journal of Chemistry, 24(2), 191–198. https://doi.org/10.55373/mjchem.v24i2.191 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  2. Ahda, M., Jaswir, I., Khatib, A., Ahmed, Q. U., Mahfudh, N., Ardini, Y. D., Syed Mohamad, S. N. A., Anwar, M., Hernawan, H., Miyashita, K., & Salamatullah, A. M. (2023). Phytochemical analysis, antioxidant, α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, and toxicity evaluation of Orthosiphon stamineus leaf extract. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-43251-2 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  3. Ahmed, H. M., Nabavi, S., & Behzad, S. (2020). Herbal drugs and natural products in the light of nanotechnology and nanomedicine for developing drug formulations. Mini-Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry, 21(3), 302–313. https://doi.org/10.2174/1389557520666200916143240 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  4. Andriana, Y., Ade, I. C., Nguyen, Q. T., Bui, Q. M., Nguyen, M. D., Phung, T. T., Le, V. A., Nguyen, H. K., & Truong, N. M. (2022). Efficacy of different solvents on the extraction process of antioxidant and potential compounds in Alpinia Galanga L. from Indonesia. Journal of Modern Agriculture and Biotechnology, 1(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.53964/jmab.2022005 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  5. Antons, C. (2010). The role of traditional knowledge and access to genetic resources in biodiversity conservation in Southeast Asia. Biodiversity and Conservation, 19(4), 1189–1204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-010-9816-y [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  6. Aryani, R., Nugroho, R. A., Manurung, H., Mardayanti, R., Prahastika, W., Putri, A., & Karo, B. (2020). Ficus deltoidea leaves methanol extract promote wound healing activity in mice. EurAsian Journal of BioSciences, 91(2019), 85–91. [Google Scholar]
  7. Asarini, Syamsudin, A., Yulvian, S., & Gemini, A. (2025). The antimycobacterial potential of Sambiloto (Andrographis paniculata nees) extract against Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv with microscopic-observation and drug-susceptibility (mods) methode. jurnal bioteknologi & biosains indonesia, 12(1), 1–13. [Google Scholar]
  8. Astutik, S., Pretzsch, J., & Kimengsi, J. N. (2019). Asian Medicinal Plants ’ Production and Utilization Potentials : A Review. Sustainability, 2019(11), 5483, 2–23. [Google Scholar]
  9. Banaba, L., Cell, M.-, Shrimp, B., Bioassay, L., Azad, A. K., Azizi, W. S., Ismail, A. F. H., Abbas, S. A., & Uddin, J. (2019). Phytochemical and toxicity evaluation of traditional herb : Lagerstroemia speciosa L . (Banaba) by MCF-7 cell line and brine shrimp lethality bioassay. Bangladesh Pharmaceutical Journal, 22(1), 45–49. https://doi.org/10.3329/bpj.v22i1.40072 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  10. Banerjee, M., Parai, D., Chattopadhyay, S., & Mukherjee, S. K. (2017). Andrographolide: antibacterial activity against common bacteria of human health concern and possible mechanism of action. Folia Microbiologica, 62(3), 237–244. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12223-017-0496-9 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  11. Benjamin, M. A. Z., Ng, S. Y., Saikim, F. H., & Rusdi, N. A. (2021). Ethnobotany and traditional knowledge of Bamboos (Poaceae: Bambusoideae) in Asia and their applications in the complementary and alternative medicine: A Review. Pharmacognosy Journal, 13(6), 1751–1762. https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2021.13.226 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  12. Chen, Y., Liu, H., & Heinen, J. (2019). Challenges in the conservation of an over-harvested plant species with high socioeconomic values. Sustainability, 11(15), 4194. 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11154194 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  13. Chiriac, E. R., Chi, C. L., Gean, E., & Gird, C. E. (2021). Advanced analytical approaches for the analysis of polyphenols in plant matrices — A Review. Separations Review, 8(65), 1–25. [Google Scholar]
  14. Courric, E., Brinvilier, D., Couderc, P., Ponce-Mora, A., Méril-Mamert, V., Sylvestre, M., Pelage, J. H., Vaillant, J., Rousteau, A., Bejarano, E., & Cebrian-Torrejon, G. (2023). Medicinal plants and plant-based remedies in Grande-Terre: An ethnopharmacological approach. Plants, 12(3), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12030654 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  15. Cunningham, A. B., Brinckmann, J. A., Yang, X., & He, J. (2019). Introduction to the special issue: Saving plants, saving lives: Trade, sustainable harvest and conservation of traditional medicinals in Asia. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 229(2019), 288–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2018.10.006 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  16. Dao, C. T., Duc, T. H., Manh, H. T., Minh, Q. P., Nhu, T. H., & Phi, H. N. (2020). PTP1B inhibitory flavonoids from Orthosiphon stamineus Benth. and their growth inhibition on human breast cancer cells. Natural Product Communications, 15(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578X19899517 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  17. Dika, F., Riswanto, O., Windarsih, A., Lukitaningsih, E., Rafi, M., Fadzilah, N. A., & Rohman, A. (2022). Metabolite fingerprinting based on 1 H-NMR spectroscopy and liquid chromatography for the authentication of herbal products. Molecules, 2022(27), 1–17. [Google Scholar]
  18. Dragos, D., Gilca, M., Gaman, L., Vlad, A., Iosif, L., Stoian, I., & Lupescu, O. (2017). Phytomedicine in joint disorders. Nutrients, 9(70), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9010070 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  19. Eff, A. R. Y., & Rahayu, S. T. (2016). The antibacterial effects of essential oil from Galangal rhizome Alpinia galanga (Linn.) pierreon rat (Rattus norvegicus L.) were infected by Salmonella typhi. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research, 9(1), 189–193. [Google Scholar]
  20. Ekor, M. (2014). The growing use of herbal medicines : Issues relating to adverse reactions and challenges in monitoring safety. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 4(2014), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2013.00177 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  21. Fierascu, R. C., Fierascu, I., Ortan, A., Georgiev, M. I., & Sieniawska, E. (2020). Innovative Approaches for Recovery of Phytoconstituents from medicinal/aromatic plants and biotechnological production. Molecules 2020, 25(2), 1–33. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25020309 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  22. Gómez-Castro, B., & Kipper, R. (2019). Nagoya protocol on access and benefit-sharing. Microbiology Australia, 40(3), 103–106. https://doi.org/10.1071/MA19028 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  23. Hadiarti, D., Haryadi, W., Matsjeh, S., & Swasono, R. T. (2021). Understanding phytochemical roles on α-glucosidase inhibitory activity based on metabolomic approach of Premna serratifolia leaves from West Borneo, Indonesia. Rasayan J. Chem, 14(2), 1216–1222. [Google Scholar]
  24. Hamid, Mentor, R., Blagica, J., & Tatjana, K. P. (2014). Toxicological evaluation of the plant products using Brine Shrimp (Artemia salina L.) model. Macedonian Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 60(01), 9–18. https://doi.org/10.33320/maced.pharm.bull.2014.60.01.002 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  25. Haris, A., Nawan, N. A., Au Li Mei, C., Sani, S. A., & Najmuddin, S. U. F. S. (2023). Medicinal plant applications as traditional and complementary medicine by Sabah ethnicities and the regulations and economic view in Malaysia’s healthcare industry: A mini review. Pharmacognosy Reviews, 17(33), 01–10. https://doi.org/10.5530/097627870307 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  26. Hidayati, M. D., Malang, P. N., Rahmatulloh, A., & Malang, P. N. (2022). Antioxidant activity of Uncaria gambir ( Hunter ) Roxb extracts. Tropical Journal of Natural Product Research, 6(8), 1215–1218. https://doi.org/10.26538/tjnpr/v6i8.9 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  27. Hnin, H. W. N., Khin, C. W., & Ni, N. T. (2019). Screening of some biological activities from leaves and flowers of Melastoma malabathricum l. journal of the myanmar academy of arts and science, XVII(1), 547–559. [Google Scholar]
  28. Ibrahim, N. F., Zakaria, N. A., & Aris, F. (2022). Phytochemistry and biological activity of Terung asam, indigenous fruit-vegetables of Sarawak- a Review. Journal of Sustainability Science and Management, 17(2), 270–285. https://doi.org/10.46754/jssm.2022.02.019 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  29. Jakovljevic, M., Wu, W., Merrick, J., Cerda, A., & Sugahara, T. (2021). Asian innovation in pharmaceutical and medical device industry–beyond tomorrow. Journal of Medical Economics, 24(S1), 42–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/13696998.2021.2013675 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  30. Jongrungraungchok, S., Madaka, F., Wunnakup, T., Sudsai, T., Pongphaew, C., Songsak, T., & Pradubyat, N. (2023). In vitro antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities of mixture Thai medicinal plants. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 23(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-023-03862-8 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  31. Kanjanasirirat, P., Suksatu, A., Manopwisedjaroen, S., Munyoo, B., Tuchinda, P., Jearawuttanakul, K., Seemakhan, S., Charoensutthivarakul, S., Wongtrakoongate, P., Rangkasenee, N., Pitiporn, S., Waranuch, N., Chabang, N., Khemawoot, P., Sa-ngiamsuntorn, K., Pewkliang, Y., Thongsri, P., Chutipongtanate, S., Hongeng, S., … Thitithanyanont, A. (2020). High-content screening of Thai medicinal plants reveals Boesenbergia rotunda extract and its component Panduratin A as anti-SARS-CoV-2 agents. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-77003-3 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  32. Karbwang, J., Crawley, F. P., Na-Bangchang, K., & Maramba-Lazarte, C. (2019). Herbal medicine development: Methodologies, challenges, and issues. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2019, 4935786, https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/4935786 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  33. Karunakaran, T., Ismail, I. S., & Ee, G. C. L. (2019). Anti-Bacillus and nitric oxide inhibitory activities of Malaysian Garcinia mangostana extracts and their major constituents. International Food Research Journal, 26(2), 705–711. [Google Scholar]
  34. Kenshole, E., Herisse, M., Michael, M., & Pidot, S. J. (2021). Natural product discovery through microbial genome mining. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology, 60, 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2020.07.010 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  35. Kristina, von R., Arida, E., & Häuser, C. (2017). A review of biodiversity-related issues and challenges in megadiverse Indonesia and other Southeast Asian countries. Research Ideas and Outcomes, 3, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3897/rio.3.e20860 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  36. Kunle, O. F., Egharevba, H. O., & Ahmadu, P. O. (2012). Standardization of herbal medicines - A review. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation Vol. 4(3), 101–112. https://doi.org/10.5897/IJBC11.163 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  37. Le, T. M. Q., Nguyen, T. D. Q., Dang, H. P., Nguyen, T. Y. N., & Tran, L. Q. (2019). Chemical constituents and the inhibition of α -glucosidase of Gynura procumbens ( Lour .) Merr. Science & Technology Development Journal, 22(4), 391–399. [Google Scholar]
  38. Liew, K. Y., Hafiz, M. F., Chong, Y. J., Harith, H. H., Israf, D. A., & Tham, C. L. (2020). A review of Malaysian herbal plants and their active constituents with potential therapeutic applications in sepsis. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2020, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8257817 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  39. Lin, L. W., Ananthakrishnan, A., & Teerawattananon, Y. (2021). Evaluating traditional and complementary medicines: Where do we go from here? International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care, 37, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266462321000179 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  40. Liu, C. Xiao. (2021). Overview on development of ASEAN traditional and herbal medicines. Chinese Herbal Medicines, 13(4), 441–450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chmed.2021.09.002 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  41. Mendoza, N., & Silva, E. M. E. (2018). Introduction to phytochemicals: Secondary metabolites from plants with active principles for pharmacological importance. In Phytochemicals - Source of Antioxidants and Role in Disease Prevention. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/INTECHOPEN.78226 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  42. Mera, I. F. G., Falconí, D. E. G., Córdova, V. M., Irina Francesca, M., González, Falconí, D. E. G., Córdova, V. M., Mera, I. F. G., Falconí, D. E. G., & Córdova, V. M. (2019). Secondary metabolites in plants: Main classes, phytochemical analysis and pharmacological activities. Bionatura, 4(4), 1000–1009. https://doi.org/10.21931/RB/2019.04.04.11 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  43. Mittermeier, R. A., & Bowles, I. A. (1993). The global environment facility and biodiversity conservation: lessons to date and suggestions for future action. Biodiversity and Conservation, 2(6), 637–655. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00051964 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  44. Munugoda K.D., Talagala T.S., Subasinghe S.M.C.U.P, Hettiarachchi D.S., Cooray A.T., & Hapugoda M.D. (2022). Medicinal aromatic plant cultivation for the bioeconomy: eliciting willingness from rural communities. In Proceedings of International Forestry and Environment Symposium (Vol. 26, p. 167). https://doi.org/10.31357/fesympo.v26.5710 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  45. Najafi, M., & Khanlarkhani, N. (2018). Curcumin as an anti-inflammatory agent : Implications to radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Journal of Cellular Physiology, 2018, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.27442 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  46. Naksen, W., Wongkaew, M., Sommano, S. R., & Hongsibsong, S. (2022). Antioxidant and phytochemical potential and phytochemicals in Gymnema inodorum (Lour.) Decne in Northern Thailand. Plants, 2022(11), 3498. 1–14. [Google Scholar]
  47. Nguyet, A., Marie, B., Benavidez, R., & Anne, S. (2021). Review of ecosystem service assessments : Pathways for policy integration in Southeast Asia. Ecosystem Services, 49(2021), 101266. 1–20 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2021.101266 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  48. Nuraini, P., Budi, H. S., Wahluyo, S., Wicaksono, D. P., Wiguno, A. A., Antonius, Y., & Laosuwan, K. (2024). Molecular docking and zone inhibition analysis of fractionated ethanol extract of Zingiber officinale var. rubrum against Candida albicans as oral antifungal. Trends in Sciences, 21(7), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.48048/tis.2024.7787 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  49. Park, J. E., Yi, J., & Kwon, O. (2022). Twenty years of traditional and complementary medicine regulation and its impact in Malaysia : Achievements and policy lessons. BMC Health Services Research, 22(2022), 102. 1–13 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-022-07497-2 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  50. Parveen, A., Parveen, B., Parveen, R., & Ahmad, S. (2015). Challenges and guidelines for clinical trial of herbal drugs. Journal of Pharmacy and Bioallied Sciences, 7(4), 329–333. https://doi.org/10.4103/0975-7406.168035 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  51. Patwardhan, B., & Mashelkar, R. A. (2009). Traditional medicine-inspired approaches to drug discovery : can Ayurveda show the way forward ? Drug Discovery Today, 14(15), 804–811. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2009.05.009 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  52. Phu, H. H., Van, K. P., Tran, T. H., Thuy, D., & Pham, N. (2022). Extraction, chemical compositions and biological activities of essential oils of Cinnamomum verum cultivated in Vietnam. Processes, 10(2022), 1713. 1–10. [Google Scholar]
  53. Quy, T. N., & Tan, K. Do. (2022). Phytochemical constituents and antioxidant activity of some medicinal plants collected from the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Asian J Agric & Biol., 4(2022), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.35495/ajab.2021.05.230 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  54. Ramli, M. R., Malek, S., Milow, P., & Aziz, N. J. (2021). Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in the kampung orang asli donglai baru, hulu langat, Malaysia. Biodiversitas, 22(3), 1304–1309. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d220329 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  55. Sam, S. (2019). Importance and effectiveness of herbal medicines. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 8(2), 354–357. [Google Scholar]
  56. Sechaba, B. (2022). The Worldwide Herbal Market : Trends and Opportunities. Journal of Biodedical Research and Environmental Science, 3(5), 575–584. https://doi.org/10.37871/jbres1482 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  57. Shubham, B., Verma, R., & Gupta, J. (2018). Challenges and future prospects of herbal medicine. International Research in Medical and Health Sciences, 1(1), 12–15. https://doi.org/10.36437/IRMHS.2018.1.1.D [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  58. Singh, K., Srichairatanakool, S., Chewonarin, T., Prommaban, A., Samakradhamrongthai, R. S., Brennan, M. A., Brennan, C. S., & Utama-ang, N. (2022). Impact of green extraction on Curcuminoid content, antioxidant activities and anti-cancer efficiency (In Vitro) from Turmeric rhizomes (Curcuma longa L.). Foods, 11(2022), 3633. 1–11. [Google Scholar]
  59. Subramaniam, G., Yew, X. Y., & Sivasamugham, L. A. (2020). Antibacterial activity of Cymbopogon citratus against clinically important bacteria. South African Journal of Chemical Engineering, 34(2020), 26–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajce.2020.05.010 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  60. Süntar, I. (2020). Importance of ethnopharmacological studies in drug discovery: role of medicinal plants. Phytochemistry Reviews, 19(5), 1199–1209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11101-019-09629-9 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  61. Tabunhan, S., & Tungsukruthai, P. (2022). Antibiofilm activity of a Curcuma zedoaria rosc rhizome extract against methicillin-resistant and susceptible Staphylococcus aureus. Microbiol. Biotechnol. Lett., 50(2), 193–201. [Google Scholar]
  62. Tanruean, K., Poolprasert, P., Suwannarach, N., Kumla, J., & Lumyong, S. (2021). Phytochemical analysis and evaluation of antioxidant and biological activities of extracts from three Clauseneae plants. Plants, 10(2021), 117. 1–18. [Google Scholar]
  63. Thi, D., Hien, T., Long, T. P., Thao, T. P., Lee, J., Trang, D. T., Minh, T. T., Cuong, P. Van, Thi, D., Lan, N., Dang, N. H., & Dat, N. T. (2019). Anti-inflammatory effects of alkaloid enriched extract from roots of Eurycoma longifolia Jack. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 9(1), 18–23. https://doi.org/10.4103/2221-1691.250265 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  64. Thielmann, J., Muranyi, P., & Kazman, P. (2019). Screening essential oils for their antimicrobial activities against the foodborne pathogenic bacteria Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Heliyon, 5(6), e01860.1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01860 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  65. Thu, Z. M., Myo, K. K., Aung, H. T., Clericuzio, M., Armijos, C., & Vidari, G. (2020). Bioactive phytochemical constituents of wild edible mushrooms from Southeast Asia. Molecules, 2020(25), 1972.1–38. [Google Scholar]
  66. Tiquio, L. A. L., Cordero, C. S., Nievales, M. F. J., & Alejandro, G. J. D. (2024). Medicinal plants used for postpartum recuperation in an upland community in Leon, Iloilo, the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Science, 153(3), 973–1003. [Google Scholar]
  67. Tran, H. M., Thuy, D., Nguyen, T., Mai, N. T., Do, H. T., Kim, T., Nguyen, T., Kim, T., Nguyen, N., Muller, M., Nguyen, H. Q., & Pham, H. T. (2022). Notes on culturable endophytic microorganisms isolated from 14 medicinal plants in Vietnam: A diversity analysis to predict the host-microbe correlations: Current Microbiology, 79(2022), 140. 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00284-022-02830-8 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  68. Urumarudappa, S. K. J., Tungphatthong, C., & Sukrong, S. (2019). Mitigating the impact of admixtures in Thai herbal products. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 10(2019), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2019.01205 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  69. Utami, A. R., Maksum, I. P., & Deawati, Y. (2023). Berberine and its study as an antidiabetic compound. Biology, 2023(12), 973. 1–14. [Google Scholar]
  70. Vickers, A., & Zollman, C. (1999). Herbal medicine. ABC of complementary Medicine, 319(1999), 16–19. [Google Scholar]
  71. Wahyuni, T. S., Permanasari, A. A., Widyawaruyanti, A., Hotta, H., Aoki-Utsubo, C., & Hafid, A. F. (2020). Antiviral activity of Indonesian medicinal plants against hepatitis B virus. Pharmacognosy Journal, 12(5), 1108–1114. https://doi.org/10.5530/PJ.2020.12.157 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  72. Weiskopf, S. R., McCarthy, J. L., McCarthy, K. P., Shiklomanov, A. N., Wibisono, H. T., & Pusparini, W. (2019). The conservation value of forest fragments in the increasingly agrarian landscape of Sumatra. Environmental Conservation, 46(4), 340–346. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892919000195 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  73. Weng, K. B., Isabel, L. F., Heng, Y. K., & Joyce, H. Y. P. (2022). Wound healing, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of Clinacanthus nutans (Burm.f.) Lindau and Strobilanthes crispus (L.) Blume Extracts. Molecules, 27(2022), 1722. 1–18. [Google Scholar]
  74. Wiart, C., Shorna, A. A., Rahmatullah, M., Nissapatorn, V., Seelan, J. S. S., Rahman, H., Rusdi, N. A., Mustaffa, N., Elbehairy, L., & Sulaiman, M. (2023). The garlic tree of Borneo, Scorodocarpus borneensis (Baill.) Becc. (Olacaceae): Potential utilization in pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and functional cosmetic industries. Molecules, 28(15), 5717. 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28155717 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  75. Widowati, L., Siswoyo, H., Sampurno, O. D., & Halim, S. (2020). The pattern of herbal medicine prescribed by medical doctor for ten health problems in several cities of Indonesia (Analysis of Jamu Registry 2016 and 2018 Database). Advances in Health Sciences Research, 22(2020), 625–629. [Google Scholar]
  76. Wink, M. (2015). Modes of action of herbal medicines and plant secondary metabolites. Medicines, 2(3), 251–286. https://doi.org/10.3390/MEDICINES2030251 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  77. Wong, J. X., & Ramli, S. (2021). Antimicrobial activity of different types of Centella asiatica extracts against foodborne pathogens and food spoilage microorganisms. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 142(2021), 111026. 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111026 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  78. Xia, S., Ma, L., Wang, G., Yang, J., Zhang, M., Wang, X., & Su, J. (2022). In vitro antimicrobial activity and the mechanism of Berberine against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from bloodstream infection patients. Infection and Drug Resistance, 2022(15), 1934. https://doi.org/10.2147/IDR.S357077 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  79. Yan, Y., Li, X., Zhang, C., Lv, L., Gao, B., & Li, M. (2021). Research progress on antibacterial activities and mechanisms of natural alkaloids: A Review. Antibiotics 2021, 10(3), 318. 1–30. https://doi.org/10.3390/ANTIBIOTICS10030318 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  80. Ying, L., Hui, B., Yi, B., Karen, A., Laserna, C., Ting, H., Li, H., Fong, S., & Li, Y. (2024). Phytochemical fingerprint revealing antibacterial and antioxidant activities of endemic banana cultivars in Southeast Asia. Heliyon, 10(15), e35139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e35139 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  81. Yongkhamcha, B. (2020). Chemicals and antioxidant activity of ethanol leaf extract from Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. cultivated in salinity soil in Ban Donman village, Maha Sarakham, Thailand. Science and Technology RMUTT Journal, 10(1), 194–206. [Google Scholar]
  82. Yusof, N., Goh, M. P. Y., & Ahmad, N. (2022). Evaluation of the antidiabetic, islet protective and beta-cell regenerative effects of Tinospora crispa (L.). Natural Product Sciences, 28(3), 105–114. https://doi.org/10.20307/nps.2022.28.3.105 [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  83. Zakaria, N. H., Saad, N., Azurahanim, C., Abdullah, C., & Esa, N. M. (2023). The antiproliferative effect of chloroform fraction of Eleutherine bulbosa ( Mill .) Urb . on 2D- and 3D-human lung cancer cells (A549) Model. Pharmaceuticals, 16(2023), 936. 1–23. [Google Scholar]
  84. Zhang, A., Sun, H., Wang, P., Han, Y., & Wang, X. (2012). Modern analytical techniques in metabolomics analysis. Analyst, 137(2012), 293–300. https://doi.org/10.1039/c1an15605e [Google Scholar] [Crossref] 
  85. Zoi, V., Galani, V., Lianos, G. D., Voulgaris, S., Kyritsis, A. P., & Alexiou, G. A. (2021). The role of Curcumin in cancer treatment. Biomedicines, 2021(9), 1086. 1–19. [Google Scholar]
  86. Zulkifli, L., Basri, M. H., & Syukur, A. (2021). Antibacterial activity of Vitex trifolia methanol extract against pathogenic bacteria. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1869(2021), 012060 IOP. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1869/1/012060 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]